In Rome Paul enjoyed a limited freedom. He was allowed to live in his own house and people could visit him freely, though a Roman soldier guarded him constantly (16; cf. v. 30).
Soon after arriving he invited the Jewish leaders in Rome to come and see him. He outlined the events that had brought him to Rome and pointed out that he had done nothing contrary to Jewish law. He made it clear that he brought no accusation against the Jewish people; his appeal to Caesar was solely to prove his innocence (17-20).
The Jewish leaders gave the surprising reply that they had heard no reports about Paul, though they knew that people everywhere were turning against the Christians (21-22). It seems likely that, once Paul had left Palestine, the Jerusalem Jews felt they had achieved their main goal. They may not even have sent an accusation to Rome; for if they had failed to win the support of Felix and Festus in their own country, they had little hope of winning the support of Caesar in anti-Jewish Rome. Also, if Festus sent any official papers, they probably went down with the ship.
As usual Paul preached his message to the Jews first, showing from the Old Testament that the gospel he preached was the true fulfilment of the religion of Israel. But, as in other places, most of the Jews rejected his message. This also, said Paul, had been foretold by the Old Testament Scriptures. Therefore, he would once again turn and proclaim the message to the Gentiles and they would believe (23-29).
Paul’s two-year house imprisonment probably included a fixed period of eighteen months during which his accusers could present their case. If, as seems likely, the Jerusalem Jews presented no case, the authorities in Rome could take no action. Any further relevant correspondence between Rome and the authorities in Palestine would account for the remaining six months.
The point Luke emphasizes concerning Paul’s two years in Rome is a positive one, namely, that Christianity’s leading representative was allowed to preach the gospel freely in Rome, and Roman officials had first-hand knowledge of his activity. Clearly, the Roman authorities did not consider Christianity an unlawful or politically dangerous religion. Paul proclaimed the kingdom of God in the heart of the Empire just as he had proclaimed it elsewhere. And on that triumphant note, Luke concludes his story (30-31).
The Post-Acts Period
PAUL IN ROME
During Paul’s two-year imprisonment in Rome a number of people from distant places came to visit him. The news Paul received from these visitors prompted him to send off a number of letters, some of which have been collected in the New Testament.
Letter to the church in Colossae
One person to visit Paul in Rome was Epaphras, a Christian from Colossae in Asia Minor. The church in Colossae was probably formed during Paul’s long stay in Ephesus, when the converts he trained took the gospel into the surrounding countryside (Act 19:9-10). Epaphras, in fact, seems to have been the person mainly responsible for founding the church in Colossae (Col 1:6-7; Col 4:12). Now a problem had arisen that Epaphras was unable to deal with, so he went to Rome to seek Paul’s help.
A strange form of teaching had found its way into the Colossian church. It was an early form of Gnosticism, a religious philosophy that combined Christian belief with pagan mythology. It also contained features taken from Judaism, mainly in connection with ceremonial laws and sacred rituals (Col 2:16; Col 2:20-21).
The false teachers were concerned with trying to harmonize things that they considered to be in conflict with each other, such as good and evil, spirit and matter, God and man. Because they believed matter to be evil, they argued that a God who is holy could not come in contact with human beings who are sinful. They taught that there were countless intermediate beings, part-spirit and part-matter, who helped bridge the gap between God and the human race, and Jesus Christ was one of them. People were required to worship these beings if they were to gain victory over evil and eventually reach God (Col 2:8-10; Col 2:18).
Paul opposed this teaching, pointing out that Jesus Christ is the only mediator between God and the human race, and the only person able to save sinful human beings. He is the supreme God who is over and above every being, spirit or material, yet he is the perfect human being who by his death conquered evil and brings repentant sinners into union with God (Col 1:15-22; Col 2:9; Col 2:15). This union means that on the one hand believers can have victory over evil, and on the other that Christ’s life can be reproduced in them (Col 3:3-5; Col 3:10).
Letter to Philemon
While Epaphras was with Paul, another person from Colossae arrived at Paul’s place of imprisonment in Rome. This person, Onesimus, was a slave who worked for Philemon, the Christian in whose house the Colossian church met (Philem 1-2,10).
Onesimus had escaped from his master and fled to Rome in search of a new life of freedom. But upon meeting Paul he was converted. He knew that since he was now a Christian, he should correct past wrongdoings and return to his master, but he was understandably fearful. Paul knew Philemon well, so wrote him a letter asking him to forgive Onesimus and receive him back as a brother in Christ. Not only was Philemon to welcome Onesimus back to his household, but the church was to welcome him as a new and useful addition to its fellowship (Philem 10-20; cf. Col 4:9).
Letter to the church in Ephesus
Paul apparently learnt from Epaphras that the false teaching was not confined to Colossae. He therefore wrote another letter to send back to the region, as a means of passing on teaching to the churches as a whole. This letter, known to us as Ephesians, was more general than Paul’s other letters. It made no specific references to individuals or incidents in a particular church, but dealt with broader issues of Christian faith and practice. It gave further teaching on matters discussed in Colossians, such as the uniqueness of Christ, his victory over evil spiritual forces, his union with his people, and the results that this union should produce in the lives of Christians (Eph 1:20-23; Eph 2:2-6; Eph 4:1; Eph 4:17; Eph 6:12).
Ephesians seems to have been one of several similar letters that Paul sent to the churches of the region. Perhaps the name of the receiving church was written into the introduction of each letter as it was delivered. If so, that would explain why some ancient manuscripts include the word ‘Ephesus’ in the introduction, but others omit it (Eph 1:1). Paul’s letter to the church in Laodicea may have been another copy of this letter (Col 4:16). The person who delivered these letters, Tychicus, also passed on news of Paul’s circumstances in Rome (Eph 6:21-22; Col 4:7-9).
Though held prisoner in Rome, Paul was not alone. Luke and Aristarchus, who had travelled with him from Caesarea, were still there (Col 4:10; Col 4:14; Philem 24). So were Mark and Timothy, who had travelled with him on his missionary journeys (Col 1:1; Col 4:10; Philem 1,24). There was also a Jew, Jesus Justus (Col 4:11), and another friend, Demas (Col 4:14; Philem 24). No doubt his Christian friends in Rome visited him often (Rom 16:1-15).
Letter to the church in Philippi
Possibly it was during this two-year period in Rome that Paul wrote his letter to the Philippians. The letter records that Paul was a prisoner at the time of writing (Php 1:13), but it does not record where he was imprisoned. The account of his life shows that he was imprisoned in many places and on many occasions (Act 16:23; Act 22:23-30; Act 24:23-27; Act 28:16; Act 28:30; 2Co 11:23), but the present imprisonment in Rome seems the most likely setting for the writing of Philippians.
The church in Philippi showed its concern for Paul by sending one of its members, Epaphroditus, to Rome to help him and give him a gift from the church. Paul wrote to thank the Philippians for their gift (Php 1:5; Php 4:18) and to correct wrong attitudes that had arisen in the church (Php 2:1-4; Php 2:14; Php 4:2-3). The Philippians were not to be discouraged because of his imprisonment, for he had many opportunities to teach and preach (Php 1:12-14). Christians in Rome were able to help him, including some who were in the government service (Php 4:21-22).
PAUL REVISITS THE CHURCHES
Free again
Although the result of his trial was in doubt for so long, Paul remained hopeful that he would be released. He told the Philippians that he expected to visit them soon (Php 1:25; Php 1:27; Php 2:24), and earlier he had told Philemon of his plans to visit Colossae (Philem 22). Almost certainly he was released at the end of his two years imprisonment. What happened after his release is not certain, but from details in the letters he wrote to Timothy and Titus, we can work out at least some of his movements.
Helping Timothy and Titus
One place that Paul visited after leaving Rome was the island of Crete. It seems that among those who accompanied him on this trip were two co-workers from former years, Timothy and Titus. Paul found that the churches of Crete were in confusion, mainly because of false teachers. He stayed for a while to help correct the difficulties, but when he had to move on to other places he left Titus behind to carry on the work and establish proper leadership in the churches (Tit 1:5; Tit 1:10-11).
When Paul came to Ephesus he found further problems of false teaching. He had once warned the Ephesian elders that false teachers would create confusion in the church (Act 20:29-30), and now that had happened. Self-appointed ‘experts’ were ruining the church with unprofitable teaching based on ancient myths, legends, laws and genealogies (1Ti 1:4-7; 1Ti 4:1-3; 1Ti 6:3-5). Some of the teaching was so harmful that Paul believed the only way to deal with the unrepentant offenders was to put them out of the church (1Ti 1:19-20).
After some time Paul departed from Ephesus to go to Macedonia, but he left Timothy behind to give further help to the church (1Ti 1:3). In Macedonia Paul no doubt fulfilled his wish of revisiting the Philippian church (cf. Php 2:24; Php 4:1). But he was concerned for the two men he had left behind in Crete and Ephesus, and decided to write them each a letter. The two letters, Titus and 1 Timothy, are similar in many ways, though 1 Timothy is much longer and more personal.
In both letters Paul encourages his two fellow workers to be confident in carrying out the task entrusted to them (1Ti 1:3; 1Ti 1:18; 1Ti 4:6; 1Ti 4:11-12; Tit 1:5; Tit 2:15), to establish some order and leadership in the churches (1Ti 2:1; 1Ti 2:8; 1Ti 3:1-13; 1Ti 5:17; Tit 1:6-9; Tit 2:2-8), to instruct people in Christian truth (1Ti 3:14-15; 1Ti 4:13-14; 1Ti 6:20; Tit 2:1; Tit 3:8) and not to waste time arguing about senseless issues (1Ti 4:7; 1Ti 6:20; Tit 3:9).
Imprisoned again
Some time after writing to Timothy and Titus, Paul left Macedonia. His exact route is unknown, but among the places he visited were Corinth in the south of Greece and Miletus on the west coast of Asia Minor (2Ti 4:20). He also visited Troas to the north. The fact that he left behind some of his valued possessions at Troas suggests he may have been arrested there and forced to leave in a hurry (2Ti 4:13). Wherever he was arrested, he was taken to Rome once more, and from prison wrote his final letter, 2 Timothy (2Ti 1:8; 2Ti 2:9).
When the authorities in Rome laid charges against Paul, some of his friends deserted him. But the God who always stood by him rescued him from violence and enabled him to proclaim the gospel to the Roman officials (2Ti 4:16-17). Nevertheless, he did not have the optimism of his first imprisonment. Instead of looking forward to release, he expected only execution (2Ti 4:6-8).
Knowing that time was running out, Paul wrote to Timothy to give him further encouragement and make a number of urgent requests. The church in Ephesus was still troubled by false teachers, and Paul wanted Timothy to stand firm in teaching the Christian truth (2Ti 1:6-8; 2Ti 1:14; 2Ti 2:3; 2Ti 2:15; 2Ti 3:14-17; 2Ti 4:2; 2Ti 4:5). At the same time he was to avoid time-wasting arguments with people whose chief aim was to make trouble (2Ti 2:14; 2Ti 2:16; 2Ti 2:23; 2Ti 3:5).
Two people who would no doubt be of help to Timothy in his difficult task were Aquila and Priscilla, who were now back in Ephesus after their second period of residence in Rome (2Ti 4:19; cf. Act 18:2; Act 18:18-19; Act 18:24-26; Rom 16:3). The family of Onesiphorus, who had given Paul valuable help in Rome, were also now back in Ephesus and likewise would be a help to Timothy (2Ti 1:16-18; 2Ti 4:19).
Martyrdom in Rome
Several urgent requests that Paul sent to Timothy indicate the distress of his final imprisonment. As he sat in his unhealthy cell, he was beginning to feel cold and he missed his books (2Ti 4:13; 2Ti 4:21). He was also lonely. Demas, who had been with him faithfully during his first imprisonment, had now left him (2Ti 4:10; cf. Col 4:14). Others had gone to various places in the service of God (2Ti 4:10; 2Ti 4:12). Some of the local Roman Christians visited him (2Ti 4:21), but only Luke could stay with him for any length of time (2Ti 4:11).
The two people Paul most wanted with him in his closing days were Timothy and Mark, the two who, as young men, had set out with him on his early missionary journeys. Mark was most likely working in Colossae, not far from Ephesus, so Timothy would have had no difficulty going to fetch him (2Ti 4:9; 2Ti 4:11; cf. Col 4:10). Whether they reached Rome in time is not certain. The apostle to the Gentiles, who throughout his life had never been far from death at the hands of the Jews, was finally beheaded by imperial Rome (about AD 62).
THE MINISTRY OF PETER
Encouraging the persecuted
By this time persecution was breaking out against the Christians throughout the Empire. As long as Christianity was thought to be a branch of Judaism, it was protected by law, because Judaism was a legal religion. But people in general were becoming more aware of the differences between Christianity and Judaism. When the Jews in Jerusalem killed James the Lord’s brother (about the same time as Paul was martyred in Rome), everybody could see clearly that Christianity was not a movement within Judaism. It was plainly an unlawful religion.
In addition to this, people hated Christians because they could not mix freely in a society whose practices they saw as idolatrous and immoral. The Emperor Nero, who began a sensible reign ten years previously, was by now senselessly brutal and bitterly anti-Christian. He blamed Christians for the great fire of Rome (AD 64), with the result that fierce persecution broke out. About this time Peter wrote the letter that we know as 1 Peter. Its purpose was to encourage Christians to bear persecution patiently, even if it meant death (1Pe 2:20-23; 1Pe 3:14-15; 1Pe 4:12-19), and to assure them of their living hope and glorious future (1Pe 1:3-9).
But where has Peter been all these years? We last read of him in relation to the meeting with Paul and other leaders at Jerusalem thirteen or fourteen years earlier (Act 15:6-7; Act 15:12-13). We shall therefore go back to the time immediately after that meeting to see if we can fill in some of the gaps in our knowledge concerning Peter.
Peter and Mark
When Barnabas left Paul before the start of Paul’s second missionary journey, he went to Cyprus with Mark, while Paul and Silas went through Asia Minor to Europe (Act 15:36-41). Early records indicate that after Barnabas and Mark finished their work in Cyprus, Mark joined Peter. These two then worked together for many years, preaching and teaching throughout the northern regions of Asia Minor that Paul had been forbidden to enter (Act 16:7-8; 1Pe 1:1).
There is good evidence to indicate that, after this, Peter and Mark went to Rome for a period and taught the Christians there. When Peter left, Mark stayed behind, and the Romans Christians asked Mark to write down the story of Jesus as they had heard it from Peter. Mark did as they requested and the result was Mark’s Gospel.
Peter’s influence in Mark’s Gospel is seen in the rapid movement of the story, the straightforward reporting, the direct language and the vivid detail (Mar 1:30; Mar 1:41; Mar 3:5; Mar 4:38; Mar 6:39; Mar 10:14; Mar 10:21; Mar 10:32). This is particularly so when the story concerns Peter’s mistakes (Mar 9:5-6; Mar 14:66-72). Peter and Mark helped the Gentiles in Rome to understand the story of Jesus better by giving translations of Aramaic expressions (Mar 3:17; Mar 5:41; Mar 7:11; Mar 7:34; Mar 15:22; Mar 15:34) and explanations of Jewish beliefs and practices (Mar 7:3-4; Mar 12:18; Mar 14:12; Mar 15:42).
Mark and Luke
About this time, Paul arrived in Rome as a prisoner for the first time, having with him Aristarchus and Luke (Act 28:16; Act 28:30; Act 27:2). Both Mark and Luke were therefore in Rome when Paul wrote the letters of his first imprisonment, and no doubt they got to know each other well (Col 4:10; Col 4:14; Philem 24). Over the years Luke had been collecting and preparing materials for the book he himself was planning to write, and on arrival in Rome was pleased to find Mark’s completed record. He was able to take some of Mark’s material and include it in his own book, which eventually appeared in two volumes, Luke’s Gospel and Acts.
In his Gospel, as in Acts, Luke wanted to show that Jesus Christ was God’s Saviour for people everywhere, regardless of race (Luk 2:32; Luk 3:6-8; Luk 4:25-27; Luk 7:9), and that his followers had a responsibility to spread the message of that salvation everywhere (Luk 4:18; Luk 19:10; Luk 24:47). The concern that Jesus’ followers showed for the poor, the sick, the despised and other socially disadvantaged people was something they had learnt from him (Luk 6:20; Luk 7:12; Luk 7:22; Luk 13:11; Luk 17:16).
Peter and Silas
After Paul’s release from imprisonment, Mark also left Rome. Later, Paul was imprisoned in Rome again and, believing he was near death, sent for Mark and Timothy to come to him (2Ti 4:9; 2Ti 4:11). Whether or not they reached Rome before Paul was executed, Mark seems to have stayed on in Rome, and was still there when Peter visited the city again (1Pe 5:13. The early Christians referred to Rome symbolically as Babylon, the centre of organized opposition to God). Peter’s co-worker at this time was Silas, the person who had gone with Paul on his second missionary journey. Using Silas as his secretary, Peter then wrote the letter referred to above (1 Peter) and sent it to the churches of northern Asia Minor that he had helped to evangelize (1Pe 1:1; 1Pe 5:12).
Peter and Jude
A year or so later, when Peter was in Rome again, he heard of the activities of false teachers around the churches to whom he had previously written. He therefore wrote and sent off a second letter (2Pe 3:1). In it he opposed the false teachers, who claimed that faith was not related to behaviour, and therefore immoral practices were not wrong for those with higher spiritual knowledge (2Pe 1:5-7; 2Pe 2:1-3). Peter also opposed those who mocked the Christians’ belief in Christ’s return. He urged them to repent before it was too late, because Christ’s return would bring in the final judgment (2Pe 3:3-4; 2Pe 3:9-10).
At the time of writing this letter, Peter was probably awaiting execution (2Pe 1:14; cf. Joh 21:18-19). According to tradition he was crucified in Rome during the latter half of the AD 60s.
The sort of false teaching dealt with in 2 Peter was causing growing concern among the churches. Another New Testament letter written to oppose it was the letter of Jude (Jud 1:4; Jud 1:19). The writer was probably a younger brother of Jesus and, like his older brother James, may have become a believer after the resurrection (Mar 6:3; Joh 7:3-5; Act 1:14). The similarities between 2 Peter and Jude suggest that the two writers may have used a commonly accepted form of argument in opposing the false teaching. This destructive mixture of philosophy and religion was yet another early form of Gnosticism.
CLOSE OF AN ERA
Discouragement among Hebrew Christians
With the increasing persecution of Christians during the reign of Nero, some of the Jewish Christians began to wonder if they had done right in turning from Judaism to Christianity. They had believed that Israel’s Old Testament religion fulfilled its purpose in Christ and that the temple in Jerusalem was to be destroyed. Yet thirty years after Jesus’ death, the temple was still standing and the Jewish religious system was still functioning.
To some Jewish Christians it seemed that Judaism was as firm as ever, whereas Christianity was heading for disaster. Many became discouraged and stopped joining in the meetings of the church, while some even gave up their Christian faith and went back to Judaism. The Letter to the Hebrews was written in an effort to correct this backsliding (Heb 6:4-6; Heb 6:9-12; Heb 10:23-25; Heb 10:35-39).
The writer of this letter does not record his name, though he must have been a well known Christian teacher of the time. He was probably a Jew (Heb 1:1), and both he and his readers had received the gospel through the apostles or others who had heard Jesus (Heb 2:3). The letter does not say where these disheartened Jewish Christians lived, but the writer hoped to visit them soon (Heb 13:19).
By one example after another, the writer contrasted the imperfections of the Jewish religious system with the perfection of Christ. Everything of the old era that was temporary, incomplete or insufficient found its fulfilment in him. He was far above prophets, angels, leaders and priests, and his one sacrifice did what all the Jewish sacrifices could never do (Heb 9:11-14; Heb 10:11-18). If the Jewish Christians suffered because of their faith, they were only experiencing what all God’s faithful people experienced. But the faithful endured (Heb 11:36-40; Heb 12:1-2; Heb 13:23). Even Jesus Christ suffered, but he also endured, and in God’s time he was gloriously triumphant (Heb 12:2-4).
Final break with Judaism
During the AD 60s there was a growing feeling of unrest throughout the Jewish population of Judea, not so much because of the Christians as because of the Romans. Most Jews had always hated Rome, but their hatred increased as the Roman governors of Judea increasingly mismanaged Jewish affairs. The anti-Roman extremists among the Jews were now prepared for open rebellion against Rome.
When war broke out the Jews were encouraged by some early successes, but they could not withstand Rome indefinitely. In due course the Roman armies, after conquering Galilee, Perea and Judea, laid siege to Jerusalem. At first they met strong opposition from the Jews, but by AD 70 they had conquered the city and reduced much of it, including the temple, to rubble. Although this devastated Judaism, it had a good effect on Christianity, because all the old visible ties with Judaism were now completely broken.
Preserving the Gospel records
About forty years had now passed since the death of Jesus Christ. Many of those who had been witnesses of Jesus’ ministry were now scattered far and wide, and others had died. Because Christians wanted to preserve the teachings that these men handed down, many collections of the sayings and works of Jesus began to appear (Luk 1:1-2).
We have seen how Mark prepared an account of the ministry of Jesus for the Roman Christians, and as time passed this account became widely used among the churches. Luke also had prepared a written record, which, though designed for someone who was probably a government official, was also becoming widely known. Now another person, Matthew, prepared his Gospel. He used some of the material that Mark and others had already prepared, but the characteristic flavour of his Gospel comes from the extra material he added and the way he arranged it. Early records suggest that he wrote for Greek-speaking Jewish Christians in Syria.
Matthew was concerned to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah (Mat 9:27; Mat 11:2-6), the one to whom the Old Testament pointed (Mat 2:5-6; Mat 12:17-21), the fulfilment of God’s purposes for Israel (Mat 1:17; Mat 5:17), and the king through whom God’s kingdom came into the world (Mat 4:17; Mat 12:28; Mat 27:11). Those who repented and believed the gospel were the people of Christ’s kingdom, no matter what their nationality, whereas those who clung to the traditional Jewish religion were not (Mat 3:7-10; Mat 8:11-12; Mat 21:43; Mat 23:23-28).
Jewish Christians were therefore not to fall into the errors of the unbelieving Jews. They were to develop a standard of behaviour that consisted of more than merely keeping laws (Mat 5:22; Mat 5:28; Mat 5:42; Mat 20:26), and they were to spread the good news of the kingdom to all people, regardless of race (Mat 5:13-16; Mat 12:21; Mat 24:14; Mat 28:19-20).
The fourth Gospel
Towards the end of the century another account of Christ’s ministry appeared, this time in Ephesus. The writer was the last living member of the original apostolic group, John, ‘the disciple whom Jesus loved’ (Joh 21:20; Joh 21:24). By that time the other three Gospels were widely known. John therefore did not write another narrative account of Jesus’ ministry, but selected a number of incidents and showed what they signified. Most of these incidents involved miracles (or ‘signs’) which showed that Jesus was the Messianic Son of God (Joh 20:30-31). Usually they were followed by long debates between Jesus and the Jews (e.g. Joh 5:1-15 followed by 5:16-47; Joh 9:1-12 followed by 9:13-10:39).
Gnostic-type teachings were by now a bigger problem than ever, especially in the region around Ephesus. Some teachers denied that Jesus was fully divine, others that he was fully human. John firmly opposed both errors (Joh 1:1; Joh 1:14; Joh 1:18; Joh 3:13; Joh 19:28; Joh 19:34). But he was concerned with more than just opposing false teaching. He wanted to lead people to faith in Christ, so that they might experience the full and eternal life that Christ made possible (Joh 1:4; Joh 3:15; Joh 6:27; Joh 10:10; Joh 14:6; Joh 20:31).
John’s letters
Soon after writing his Gospel, John wrote a letter that was sent around the churches of the Ephesus region. Because of the Gnostic-type teachings, many Christians were confused. John denounced the false teachers as enemies of Christ. Their denial of either his deity or his humanity was an attack on the very foundation of Christian belief (1Jn 2:18-19; 1Jn 2:22; 1Jn 2:26; 1Jn 4:1-3). John wanted the believers to be assured of their salvation in Christ (1Jn 5:13), and resistant to those who encouraged sin by teaching that the behaviour of the body did not affect the purity of the soul (1Jn 2:4; 1Jn 3:6; 1Jn 3:8). Christians were to be self-disciplined and loving (1Jn 2:6; 1Jn 3:3; 1Jn 3:17; 1Jn 5:3).
The false teaching was being spread around the churches by travelling preachers. John wrote the short letter known as 2 John to warn one particular church not to allow the false teachers into their gatherings (2Jn 1:10-11).
On the other hand some travelling preachers were genuine preachers of the true gospel. But in one church a dictatorial person named Diotrephes refused to accept them. He claimed that they were followers of John, whom he opposed. John therefore wrote a short personal note (3 John) to one of the better leaders in the church, his friend Gaius, to help and encourage him (3Jn 1:1; 3Jn 1:5; 3Jn 1:9-10).
Victory, not defeat
Ever since the outbreak of the persecution under Nero, the church had suffered official persecution. Although this persecution eased on occasions, it intensified during the reign of Domitian (AD 81-96). Thousands of Christians were killed, tortured or sent to work as slaves in various parts of the Empire. Oppression increased, evil men prospered, people in general became anti-Christian, and the government enforced Emperor worship as a settled policy. In addition, churches were troubled within by false teachers who encouraged Christians to join in practices that were pagan and immoral. These were the circumstances in which John received from God the messages recorded in the book of Revelation (Rev 1:1; Rev 2:10; Rev 2:13-14; Rev 6:9-11; Rev 22:6).
John knew of the suffering that Christians were experiencing, for he himself had been arrested on account of his faith. He was being held prisoner on Patmos, an island off the coast from Ephesus. He sent his book to seven well known churches of the province of Asia, from where the message would spread to the smaller churches round about. The person who delivered the book probably took it to Ephesus first, then moved in a circuit around the other churches and back to Ephesus, from where he returned to Patmos (Rev 1:9-11).
Because of the difficulties that the churches faced, some Christians renounced their faith and others became discouraged. Many were confused, for it seemed that Jesus Christ, the glorious king they expected to return in power, was either unable or unwilling to save them from the power of Rome.
Through John, Jesus reassured his people that he was still in control, though he did not give them false hopes by promising quick relief. On the contrary he prepared them for greater endurance by revealing both the troubles that lay ahead and the ultimate victory that awaited those who stood firm for him. He was still the ruler of the world and he was still in control. In God’s time he would return to punish his enemies, save his people, and bring in a new age of eternal peace and joy (Rev 1:5; Rev 12:10-11; Rev 19:15-16; Rev 21:1-4).
Act 28:1. Escaped,- That is, Got safe to land. There were two islands called Melita; this was that which lay between Africa and Sicily, being about twelve miles broad and twenty long, and sixty distant from Sicily to the south. It took its name from the abundance of honey found therein,-for meli in Greek signifies honey. It also yields a great deal of cotton; and though the soil is but three feet deep above the rock, it is very fruitful. It is now called Malta; and the place where St. Paul and his company were driven on shore, is at this time shewn to travellers, and goes by the name of St. Paul's shore, or haven. The people of Malta were originally a colony of Carthaginians, as appears from several old inscriptions in Punic characters, and from the language of the present inhabitants, the number of whom is said to be above 90,000. St. Paul's shipwreck here engaged a kind of religious veneration for the island; in consequence of which it was given in the year 1530, by the emperor Charles V. to the knights of St. John in Jerusalem, when they had been expelled from Rhodes by the Turks: they were 1000 in number, of whom 500 always resided in the island, and were called Hospitalers, Knights Templars, or Knights of Malta. They were at one time composed out of eight nations, but afterwards of onlyseven, because the English knights became extinct on the reformation. They were, by the statutes of their order, under a vow of celibacy, were obliged to repress all pirates, and to wage perpetual war with the Turks and other Mahometans. This island now belongs to Great Britain.
Act 28:2. And the barbarous people- The ancients looked upon islanders in general as uncivilized, for want of a more free and common conversation with the rest of mankind; and the Greeks and Romans in particular looked upon all nations, except their own, as barbarous. (See Rom 1:14.) The Maltese however were famous for their civility to strangers. See Diodor. Siculus, lib. 5: p. 204. Edit. Steph.
Act 28:4. The venomous beast- The fierce animal seems the proper import of the word θηριον : Bos has shewn that the physicians use it to express any poisonous animal; and Lucian applies it as here to a viper. To render it beast, is by no means proper: venomous creature, would be more allowable. It has been observed, that these people concluded St. Paul to have been guilty of murder, rather than of any other crime, because they saw the viper hanging on his hand, which therefore they judged to have been the offending part; according to the rule which prevailed much among the ancients, that persons were often remarkably punished in that part of the bodywhich had been the immediate instrument of their sin. Beza finely observes in the true spirit of criticism, that the phrase ουκ ειασεν should be rendered according to its exact form, hath not suffered; to signify that they looked upon him as in effect a dead man, after having been bitten by that venomous creature. Though vengeance may here be understood of the divine vengeance in general, yet as these were the words of Heathen idolaters, possibly they might refer to the idol deity worshipped among them under this name.
Act 28:5. And he shook off the beast- This was exactly agreeable to what our Lord had promised that his disciples should do. See Mar 16:18. Luk 10:19 and compare with this the miracles of Moses, Exo 4:2-5; Exo 7:10-12.
Act 28:6. But after they had looked a great while, &c.- Many of the Heathens thought there was something divine in thenature of serpents, and that deities, or good genii, who were made use of as the instruments of delivering and honouring those who were the peculiar favourites of the gods, often appeared in that shape. Hence idols were often made with serpents near them; and there have been numerous, and indeed astonishing instances of religious worship, absurd as it may seem, paid to that kind of animals. See the notes on Gen 3:15. Grotius, Whitby, and some others, think that the Melitese took St. Paul for Hercules, Αλεξικακος, (the driver away of evil,) who was worshipped in this island, and was, according to Ptolemy, one of the gods of the Phoenicians. The Lystrans would have worshipped St. Paul as a god, and afterwards stoned him as a blasphemer, and the worst of men; chap. Act 14:11-19. So soon do unthinking persons run from one extreme to another, and so little regard is to be had to the warmth of affection, where it is not grounded upon scripture, reason, and conviction.
Act 28:7. Of the chief man of the island,- Grotius has produced an ancient inscription, by which it appears that the title of πρωτος, or chief, was given to the governor of this island; and so it is used here by St. Luke with his accustomed accuracy of expression.
Act 28:11. Whose sign was Castor and Pollux.- It was the custom of the ancients to have images on their ships, both at the head and stern; the first of which was called the sign from whence the ship was named, and the other was that of the tutelar deity to whose care the ship was committed. There is no doubtbut they had sometimes idol deities at the head; and then it is most likely, if they had any figure at the stern, it was the same; as it is hardly probable the ship should be called by the name of one idol deity and be committed to the care of another. The figure that was used for Castor and Pollux, was that of two young men on horseback, with each a javelin in his hand, and by their side half an egg and a star; but the sign of Castor and Pollux was that of a double cross. When these two appeared together, they were looked upon, by the superstitious Heathen, as propitious to sailors, and therefore for a good omen they had them carved or painted on the head of the ship, and gave it a name from thence; and perhaps most of those who sailed in company with the apostle, might look upon it as fortunate, that they sailed under such a protection, andmight promise themselves a more prosperous voyage in that ship, than they had met with in the other which brought them from Crete, as indeed they had; but it was owing to the protection, not of Castor and Pollux, but of an infinitely superior Deity, even that true God whose providence is continually over all his works.
Act 28:12. Syracuse,- Was the metropolis of Sicily, situated on the east side of the island, and had a beautiful prospect from every entrance both by sea and land. The port, which had the sea on both sides of it, was almost wholly surrounded with elegant buildings; all the suburbs being on both sides banked up and supported with walls of marble. While in its splendor, this city was the largest and richest belonging to the Greeks; it was twenty-two miles in circuit, and perhaps equalled Carthage in its wealth. It was called Quadruplex, because it was divided into four parts; the first of which contained the famous temple of Jupiter; the second, the temple of Fortune; the third, a large amphitheatre, and a surprising statue of Apollo; and the fourth which was the island of Ortygia, the two temples of Diana and Minerva, and the celebrated fountain of Arethusa. It was not far from mount AEtna. About 210 years before the birth of Christ, this city was taken and sacked by Marcellus the Roman general, and in storming the place the famous Archimedes was slain by a common soldier, while he was intent upon his studies. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and had at this time so recovered itself as to answer its former splendour. It had at length three castles, three walls, and a marble gate, and was able to send out 12,000 heroes, and 400 ships; but it received such a blow from the Saracens in the year 884, when they rased it, that it has never since recovered its former splendour.
Act 28:13. And from thence we fetched a compass,- From thence we coasted round, and came over against Rhegium, a city and promontory in the southernmost part of Italy; from which, as the name of the place implies, it was supposed the island of Sicily was broken off; for Rhegium comes from the verb ρηγνυω, or ρηγνυμι, to break. It is now called Reggio, is an archbishop's see, and a considerable place for trade. Puteoli, now commonly called Pozzuoli, is a city in the Terra di Lavoro, a province in the kingdom of Naples, situated upon a hill, in a creek of the sea, and just opposite Baiae. Within this city are five-and-thirty natural warm baths, celebrated for the cure of several diseases; and from these baths, wells, or pits of water, called in Latin Putei, the name of the town is said to be derived. It is a bishop's see, and was till lately under the archbishop of Naples.
Act 28:15. When the brethren, &c.- That is, the Christians residing at Rome,-came to meet him, sensible of the great character of St. Paul, and the important obligations which they were under to him for his excellent Epistle to them written a few years before this. It is very remarkable, that we have no certain information by whom Christianity was first preached at Rome: probably as some inhabitants of that celebrated city were present at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, ch. Act 2:10 they being converted themselves, might at their return carry the gospel thither, confirming it by miraculous works, and by the exercise of extraordinary gifts. Appii Forum was a town in the Appian way between Rome and Campania, at the distance of fifty-one miles from Rome. Tres Tabernae, or The Three Taverns, was another place, which stood on the Appian-way, about thirty miles from Rome. The rendering it Three Taverns, gives us the idea of inns or houses appointed for refreshment and accommodation. The proper meaning of the word tabernae is frontier towns, built to repress the inroads and insults of foreigners. That this was a city properly so called, and an episcopal see in the time of Constantine, is evident from Optatus, who mentions Felix a Tribus Tabernis, "of the Three Tabernae," as one of the nineteen bishops. The expression at the end of the verse, he thanked God and took courage, may perhaps intimate that his courage began in some small measure to be shaken. He knew there was a flourishing church at Rome, which had been some time planted, (Rom 1:8.) and to which, about three years before this journey, he had written a long epistle, in which he had expressed an affectionate desire to see them. Rom 1:11; Rom 15:32. In a near view of doingthis, he now rejoiced, esteeming it as the first-fruits of their friendship that they had come a day's journey to meet him, no doubt in a very kind and respectful manner. He might reasonably expect that they would contribute much to lighten his bonds, as without question they did, though so strange a panic seized them when he appeared before Caesar to make his apology. See 2Ti 4:16.
Act 28:16. To the captain of the guard:- It was customary for prisoners who were brought to Rome, to be delivered to this praefect, or captain of the praetorian band, who had the charge of the state prisoners, as appears from the instance of Agrippa, who was taken into custody by Macro the praetorian praefect, who succeeded Sejanus; and from Trajan's order to Pliny, when two were in commission. The person who nowheld this office, was the noted Burrhus Afranius; but before and after him it was held by two. The phrase Καθ' εαυτον, rendered by himself, may signify either apart or at his own pleasure; and Act 28:30 seems to fix the meaning of it to his dwelling apart in his own house. By this means he was excused from all the affliction, which lying in the common prison, among the wretched creatures who would probably have been his companions there, must have given to a mind like his. The soldier was probably chained to him as the Roman custom was, concerning which see the note on ch. Act 12:4. Who that had met the apostle in these bonds, would have guessed at his real character, and imagined him to have been one of the most upright, pious, benevolent, and generous of mankind? It has been observed, that this entry of St. Paul in chains into the chief city of the world, was more glorious and triumphant to the eye of faith than all the public entries of the Roman emperor
Act 28:20. For the house of Israel- "My sufferings arise from my regard to that glorious Messiah for whom Israel professes to wait, and to that eternal life which he has purchased, and secured for those that receive him under that character, and perseveringly love and obey him."
Act 28:22. We know that every where it is spoken against.- Justin Martyr has assigned one of the chief reasons why the Christians laboured so universally under the popular odium: "for the Jews (says he,) not only cursed them in their synagogues, and did all they could to raise the hatred and enmity of mankind against them; but they sent out chosen men from Jerusalem, to acquaint the world, and more especially the Jews every where, that the new sect which arose from JESUS of Galilee was an atheistical and wicked sect, to be avoided and detested by all mankind. The Jews spoke first againstJesus himself, and afterwards against his apostles; but it is not easy to fix the exact time when those chosen men were sent out by them." See Dial. cum Trypho, p. 170.
Act 28:23. And testified the kingdom of God,- Mr. Craddock observes, that St. Paul probably insisted on two topics; that the kingdom of God, which they had so long expected, was of a spiritual, and not of a temporal nature; and that Jesus of Nazareth, in whose name he preached, was the person foretold, as the promised Messiah, and Lord of that kingdom. The frequent mention which we have of the proof of these points out of the law of Moses, obviously leads us to conclude, that St. Paul expatiated on the typical nature of that law, whence would arise the strongest and clearest proofs of them to the Jews. The length of the present conference shews how zealous a desire St. Paul had for the conversion of his countrymen. It was undoubtedly a very curious and important discourse, and every believer must have wished to have been favoured with it, as well as with that of our Lord, of which we have only a general account, Luk 24:27. But as God, for wise reasons no doubt, has thought fit to deny us that pleasure, let us acquiesce in this, that we know enough to confirm our faith in the gospel, through his grace, if we discover a teachable temper; and if we do not, the narration of other discourses and facts would probably have occasioned new cavils for those who are determined not to believe. For there is hardly any argument in favour of truth, from which a prejudiced and captious wit cannot draw an objection, and frame a sophistry to maintain error. See on ch. Act 20:21.
Act 28:25. Well spake the Holy Ghost- The apostle could not refer to them all, because some believed; but it is probable that most of them rejected the gospel. With respect to this passage from Isaiah, which he applies to them, we observe that it is quoted oftener than any other text of the Old Testament, that is, six times, in the New; yet in such a variety of expression, as plainly proves that the apostles did not confine themselves exactlyeither to the words of the original, or of the Greek version. See the marginal references, and the Inferences at the end of the preceding chapter.
Act 28:30. And Paul dwelt two whole years, &c.- Before he was heard by Caesar, or his deputy, upon his appeal. As St. Luke concludes his history with St. Paul's abode at Rome, before his journey into Spain, we may infer, that he wrote both his gospel and the Acts while the apostle was living. Dr. Lardner proves from Ulpian, that the proconsul was to judge whether a person under accusation was to be thrown into prison, or delivered to a soldier to guard, or committed to sureties, or trusted on his parole of honour. It appears from this passage, that the persecution against the Christians at Rome was not then begun: the Romans had not yet made any laws against the disciples of the Lord Jesus; for what is here related, happened within the first ten years of the reign of Nero, before his cruelty against the Christians broke out; and it is most likely that St. Paul's friends in Nero's family (Php 4:22.) used their interest with the emperor, to procure him the liberty which he now enjoyed.
Act 28:31. Preaching the kingdom of God,- In consequence of St. Paul's sermons and instructions, many converts were doubtless made under divine grace; and this confinement, which seemed to have so discouraging an aspect, was on the whole a means of promoting the gospel. Many of his retired hours were also employed in corresponding with the Christian churches, and writing several of those excellent epistles, which have proved so great a blessing to the most distant ages. The Epistle to the Ephesians, to the Colossians, andPhilippians, as well as that to Philemon, were written from Rome during this imprisonment; and that to the Hebrews, as there is reason to believe, in or quickly after it; but as for the second to Timothy, it appears to be of a later date. It seems highly probable, that about the end of the two years here spoken of, St. Paul was set at liberty. Some have questioned, whether he ever returned into the east again; which yet from Philemon, Phm 1:22 and Heb 13:23 he seems to have expected. Clemens Romanus (Epist. 1: ad Cor. cap. 5:) expressly tells us, that he preached in the west, and that to its utmost bounds; which must at least include Spain, whither he intended to go. Rom 15:24-25. Theodoret adds, that he went to the islands of the sea; and elsewhere he numbers Gaul, that is, France, and Britain, among the disciples of the tent-maker. But in what order he visited these places, (if hedid at all visit the last-mentioned place,) or how long he remained in any of them, cannot be determined. We are told, however, that about the year of Christ 65, or 67, he returned to Rome. Chrysostom tells us, that he here converted one of Nero's concubines, which so incensed that cruel prince, that he put him to death; probably after an imprisonment, in which the second Epistle to Timothy was written. It seems to have been universally agreed among all ancient writers who mention his death, that he was beheaded at Aquae Salviae, three miles from Rome; for being free of that city, he could not be crucified. It is said, (and there can be no doubt of it,) that this glorious confessor gave his head to the fatal stroke with the utmost cheerfulness; and that he was buried in the Via Ostensis, two miles from Rome, where Constantine the Great erected a church to his memory, in the year 318, which was successively repaired and beautified by Theodosius the Great, and the empress Placidia. But his most glorious monument remains in those his immortal writings, which, with the assistance of God's grace, we now proceed to consider.
